In 395 CE, the death of Emperor Theodosius I, the last ruler to preside over both halves of the empire, marked the definitive administrative division of the Roman world. Theodosius’ passing led to the partition of the empire between his two sons: Honorius, who took control of the West, and Arcadius, who governed the East. This division signified the end of unified imperial control and set the stage for the distinct evolution of each half.
Following the death of Theodosius, the Western and Eastern Roman Empires operated as separate administrative entities, each with its own political centers, military structures, and bureaucracies. The divergence in their developmental paths became increasingly pronounced over time. Politically, militarily, and religiously, the Eastern and Western Empires evolved into unique entities, with the East maintaining its stability and strength, while the West faced mounting internal and external pressures.
Reign
395 – 476
Preceded by
Succeeded by
- Eastern Roman Empire
- Kingdom of Italy
- Kingdom of the Franks
- Kingdom of Kamelot
- Gepid Empire
- Visigothic Kingdom
- Vandal Kingdom
- Kingdom of the Suebi
- Kingdom of the Burgundians
- Kingdom of the Romans
- Kingdom of the Moors and Romans
- Alamannia
- Armorica
- The Visigoths
- Constantine III
- The sack of Rome
- The Crisis in Alexandria
- The Rise of the Huns
- Empires Rise and Fall
The Visigoths
The period that followed the empire faced immense internal and external pressures that precipitated its gradual disintegration.
In the summer of 400, Roman troops were withdrawn from Britain to bolster defenses in Italy. This strategic redeployment was necessitated by escalating threats from the Visigoths, the Visigoths, after settling in the Balkans, became increasingly discontented with their treatment by Roman authorities, particularly regarding food supplies and land allocations.
Their dissatisfaction boiled over into open rebellion in 395. Alaric, a skilled and ambitious leader, capitalized on this unrest, leading his people on a series of raids throughout the Balkans and into Graecia. By 400, Alaric had set his sights on Italy, threatening the core of Roman power.
The Roman Empire, under the leadership of the young Emperor Honorius, was compelled to prioritize the defense of Italy due to its political and symbolic significance. Rome, was not only the administrative center but also a symbol of imperial authority and continuity. The presence of the Visigoths in the region posed a direct threat to this stability.
The decision to withdraw troops from Britain was a calculated risk. Britain, though an important province, was geographically distant from the central Mediterranean heartland of the empire. With the increasing incursions by Picts, Scots, and Saxons, Britain’s defense was already a significant challenge. However, the immediate threat to Italy demanded that available forces be concentrated where they could defend the core of Roman authority.
By recalling the legions from Britain, Rome hoped to bolster its defenses against the Visigothic threat. This move, however, left Britain exposed to local unrest and external attacks. The withdrawal of Roman forces significantly weakened the empire’s grip on the province, leading to a gradual erosion of Roman control.
Constantine III
As the Empire struggled to maintain control over its vast territories, the winter of 407/408 saw Constantine III, a Roman general, proclaimed emperor by the legions stationed there.
This usurpation reflected the growing discontent and instability within the military ranks. Constantine III’s ascension further fragmented the already weakening central authority of the Empire, as he sought to establish his rule and legitimacy amidst the chaos.
Constantine III crossed into Gaul with his troops, seeking to secure his position and expand his control over the Western provinces. His campaign initially met with some success, as he managed to consolidate power in parts of Gaul. However, his ambitions ultimately added to the fragmentation and instability of the empire, as rival claimants to the throne and local authorities vied for power.
By the summer of 409 CE, the situation in Britain had deteriorated significantly. The local populace, left to fend for themselves after the withdrawal of Roman troops and the political turmoil caused by Constantine III’s actions, decided to throw off their allegiance to Rome. This marked a definitive break with the central authority, as the Britons sought to establish their own rule and protect their lands from invasions by Picts, Scots, and Saxons.
The sack of Rome
Alaric I, originally an ally of Rome, became increasingly disillusioned with the empire’s broken promises and mistreatment of his people. The Visigoths had been settled as foederati within the empire’s borders, but disputes over land, supplies, and treatment led to their rebellion. Alaric’s initial incursions into Italy began in 401, and despite a temporary settlement and the granting of titles by Rome, tensions remained high.
By 408 CE, the situation had deteriorated further. The death of the powerful Roman general Stilicho, who had managed to keep Alaric at bay through a combination of military action and diplomacy, left a power vacuum and further destabilized the Western Roman Empire. Honorius, the emperor at the time, was ineffectual and unable to manage the empire’s internal divisions or external threats effectively.
Amidst this chaos, the Britons, sent a vain appeal for military assistance to Emperor Honorius. Their request came at a time when the Western Empire was already under severe strain, fighting usurpers in the south of Gaul and dealing with the immediate threat posed by the Visigoths.
Honorius, holed up in the fortified city of Ravenna and unable to offer assistance, issued what is known as the Rescript of Honorius. In this document, he bluntly told the British civitates (local communities) to look to their own defense. This rejection underscored the empire’s inability to protect its distant provinces and the growing sense of abandonment felt by the peripheries of the empire.
In the summer of 410, Alaric led his forces to Rome. The city, already suffering from internal strife, famine, and political instability, was unprepared for a protracted siege. After negotiations failed, the Visigoths entered Rome on August 24, 410 CE, through the Salarian Gate, opened by Alaric’s strategic maneuvering.
For three days, the Visigoths plundered the city. While Alaric’s forces were predominantly Christian and spared many churches, the sack was nonetheless devastating. Public buildings were looted, private homes were pillaged, and significant cultural and religious artifacts were taken or destroyed. The psychological impact was profound. Rome, once the heart of a vast empire and symbol of invincibility, had been humbled.
The sack of Rome did not spell the immediate end of the Western Roman Empire, but it severely weakened its prestige and authority. The event shattered the perception of Rome’s invincibility and exposed the vulnerability of the Western Empire to both its subjects and its enemies.
Alaric’s intention was not to take and hold Rome, but to use the sack as leverage to secure a more favorable settlement from the Roman authorities. He sought land for his people within the empire and recognition of his authority as a legitimate ruler. The sack was a means to force the hand of Emperor Honorius and the Roman Senate, demonstrating the Visigoths’ power and resolve.
Ultimately, Alaric’s demands were not fully met, and the Visigoths moved on from Rome. After the sack, Alaric led his people southward, aiming to cross over into Africa, which was a vital grain supply region for the empire. However, Alaric died later in 410 CE, and his successor, Ataulf, redirected the Visigoths’ focus towards establishing a stable kingdom within the Roman territories.
The Crisis in Alexandria
In 402 CE, Hypatia, arrived in Rome seeking assistance against the rising tide of Christian fanaticism. Her appeals for aid were rooted in a desperate need to preserve intellectual freedom and protect Alexandria from further assaults. However, the political climate in Rome was complex and fraught with tension.
The Western Roman Empire, under the rule of Emperor Honorius, was grappling with the Visigoths. The empire’s stability was precarious, and the influence of Christianity within the Roman Senate was growing stronger. Many senators were either Christians themselves or heavily influenced by Christians.
Furthermore, maintaining diplomatic relations with the Eastern Roman Empire, was a priority. Any military intervention against Christians could have jeopardized these delicate ties.
In March of 415 CE, the situation in Alexandria escalated dramatically. Christian fanatics, destroyed the Library of Alexandria, Hypatia herself was brutally murdered, the Western Roman Empire was faced with a delicate dilemma.
Sending military forces to Alexandria was not a viable option. Such a move would have likely incited further unrest among the Christian population and could have led to open conflict with influential Christian leaders. Moreover, the Western Empire needed to maintain a diplomatic relationship with the Eastern Empire, which had its own internal struggles and power dynamics.
News of the atrocities in Alexandria reached the people Rome, sparking riots in April. Outraged citizens took to the streets, demanding justice and war. The Roman authorities, fearing the spread of unrest, deployed the army to quell the riots. The suppression was brutal, resulting in the deaths of 20 citizens. This heavy-handed response highlighted the empire’s precarious grip on internal stability.
Diplomatic and Strategic Considerations
The Western Roman Empire chose a path of diplomatic maneuvering rather than direct military intervention. An embassy was sent to Constantinople to address the crisis diplomatically. The embassy aimed to highlight the atrocities while seeking a measured response that would not exacerbate tensions with the Christian community or the Eastern Empire.
Emperor Honorius and his advisors understood the need to maintain internal stability while navigating the complex religious landscape of the time. The rise of Christianity within the empire was both a challenge and an opportunity. By avoiding direct confrontation with Christian forces, the Western Roman Empire sought to preserve its tenuous unity and avoid further weakening its already strained military resources.
The Rise of the Huns
During this period, the Huns emerged as a formidable force on the empire’s borders. Their incursions into Roman territories, along with those of other barbarian groups, created a state of near-constant warfare and instability. The Huns, under leaders such as Uldin and later Attila, launched numerous raids into Roman lands, exacerbating the already precarious situation.
In 421 CE, Emperor Honorius appointed his brother-in-law and Magister militum Constantius III as co-ruler of the Western Roman Empire. Constantius III was a capable military leader, and his appointment was seen as a move to stabilize the empire. However, his reign was short-lived, he died on 2 September 421, leaving Honorius to rule alone once more.
The death of Constantius III left a power vacuum, and the subsequent death of Honorius on 15 August 423 plunged the empire into further turmoil. The Western Roman patrician Castinus declared the primicerius Joannes as Augustus, a move that was not recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire.
In response to the political instability in the West, Theodosius II, the Eastern Roman Emperor, intervened. On 23 October 424, Theodosius II appointed his young cousin Valentinian III as Caesar with rule over the West. Valentinian III, the son of Constantius III and Galla Placidia, was still a child, so his mother Galla Placidia was named regent.
Galla Placidia, a formidable and influential figure, played a crucial role in maintaining the stability of the Western Empire during her son’s minority. Her regency was marked by efforts to strengthen the empire’s defenses and manage the complex relationships with various barbarian groups and the Eastern Roman Empire.
Throughout the 430s and 440s, the Western Roman Empire continued to face significant threats from the Huns. Attila, who became the ruler of the Huns in 434, was a ambitious leader. His campaigns against the Roman territories were devastating, culminating in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451, where the victory was costly, and the Western Roman Empire remained severely weakened.
Internally, the Western Empire struggled with political instability and power struggles. The influence of powerful generals, such as Aetius, became increasingly pronounced. Aetius, often referred to as the “last of the Romans,” played a key role in defending the empire against barbarian invasions, particularly the Huns. His assassination in 454 marked the end of a significant era of military leadership in the Western Roman Empire.
The Vandals, under their king Geiseric, crossed into North Africa and captured Carthage in 439, depriving the Western Roman Empire of one of its most important provinces and a crucial source of grain, the Western Roman Empire continued to fragment and weaken.
Empires Rise and Fall
Nedao
The assassination of Attila the Hun in 453, by his new wife, Ildico, in a plot orchestrated by the Roman Senate, had unintended consequences. Attila’s death led to internal conflicts within the Hun Empire, and Ildico was the first to be killed in the ensuing chaos.
The Huns, now led by Ellac, faced increased resistance from their subject peoples. In 454, the Huns fought the Gepids at the Battle of Nedao. Led by Ardaric, the Gepids decisively defeated the Huns, resulting in the death of Ellac and the fragmentation of Hunnic power. This battle marked the end for the Hun Empire, leading to the emergence of successor states across Europe.
The fall of the Hun Empire altered the geopolitical landscape but did not resolve the broader challenges faced by the Roman Empires.
Sack of Rome
On 16 March of 455, Emperor Valentinian III was assassinated on the orders of the senator Petronius Maximus, who sought to seize power. However, Maximus’ reign was short-lived. On 31 May, as the Vandal forces advanced on Rome, Maximus was killed by a mob while attempting to flee the city. On 2 June, the Vandals, led by King Geiseric, sacked Rome, plundering its treasures and taking many citizens captive. This sack, the second in less than half a century, further illustrated the empire’s vulnerability and declining power.
Instability
After the turmoil of 455 CE, the Western Roman Empire struggled to find stable leadership. In 457 CE, Leo I the Thracian, the Eastern Roman Emperor, appointed Majorian as Magister militum in the West. On 1 April, Majorian was acclaimed augustus by the army. Majorian proved to be a capable leader, undertaking significant military campaigns to restore the empire’s fortunes.
However, his success was short-lived. On 7 August 461, Majorian was captured and executed on the orders of the powerful general Ricimer, who then placed Libius Severus on the throne.
Libius Severus’ reign was marked by continued instability and he died in 465 CE, possibly poisoned. The Western Roman Empire lacked strong leadership, and the influence of powerful generals and factions grew. In 467 CE, Leo the Thracian elevated the comes Anthemius to Caesar with rule over the Western Roman Empire, hoping to stabilize the situation.
The Battle of Cap Bon and Kamelot
In 468 CE, the combined forces of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires launched an invasion of the Vandal Kingdom. The battle of Cap Bon resulted in a disastrous defeat for the Roman fleet, effectively ending any hopes of reclaiming North Africa. This loss further weakened the Western Roman Empire and underscored its declining military capabilities.
Amidst these broader geopolitical struggles, the Roman Empire sought to maintain some semblance of control over its former territories. In 469 CE, Leo the Thracian summoned Uther, the son of Constantius III and a Roman senator, to take his legion to Britain and reclaim it from the Saxons. Uther’s campaigns were initially successful, he defeated the Saxons and, on 20 January 470, marched the Picts to the Rhine, creating a kingdom under Roman law.
Uther named this new Roman Kingdom Kamelot and married Amy of the Rhine, attempting to establish a stable and Romanized rule in the region. However, this was a rare success in a period marked by the empire’s fragmentation and decline.
Odoacer
Despite occasional successes, the Western Roman Empire continued to disintegrate. The pressures from internal strife, invasions, and economic decline proved insurmountable. In 476, Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor in the West, was deposed by the Heruli King known as Flavius Odoacer. This ended the Western Roman Empire.
Odoacer’s forces defeated Romulus Augustulus, after deposing Romulus Augustulus, Odoacer took control of Italy and declared himself ruler. However, rather than taking the title of emperor, Odoacer assumed the title of King of Italy. This decision was significant as it marked a clear departure from the Roman imperial tradition. By choosing not to elevate himself to the status of emperor, Odoacer acknowledged the nominal authority of the Eastern Roman Emperor, Zeno, while effectively establishing his own independent rule.
Odoacer maintained many aspects of Roman administration and governance, preserving a semblance of continuity. Odoacer retained the Roman Senate and utilized Roman bureaucratic structures to govern, which helped to stabilize his rule and gain acceptance among the Roman population.
The new kingdom established by Odoacer represented a hybrid political entity that combined Roman traditions with Heruli elements.
Discover more from Multipolar World
Subscribe to get the latest posts sent to your email.
Multipolar World 